Abstract

This paper examines Montenegrin war crimes and atrocities against the Albanian population in the Lim Valley, Plav, and Guci regions from the early 19th to mid-20th century. It traces the collaboration between Montenegrin and Russian forces in campaigns of forced religious conversion, mass killings, and colonization aimed at eradicating Albanian identity. Drawing on eyewitness testimonies, consular reports, and local oral histories, the study reveals a continuous pattern of violence — from the 1854 wars to the genocidal acts of 1912–1919 and subsequent repression under the Yugoslav kingdom. These events shaped enduring demographic, cultural, and territorial consequences for the Albanian highlanders.

This article is dedicated to the Albanian victims of the Serbian and Montenegrin war crimes and atrocities carried for over a century. These crimes included forced conversion to Orthodoxy and massacres.

Background

In the 1820 the Russians, in collaboration with the Montenegrins, wanted to control the entire Lim Valley. After prolonged conflicts, Cetinje intervened more seriously, sending Iguman Zečević, who introduced the “Law of the Vasojevićs with twelve points,” initiating a gradual conversion to Orthodoxy over three decades.

Permanent settlement of colonists in the Lower Lim Valley began with increasing violence against the indigenous population. Armed bands, directed by Cetinje and supported by Tsarist Russia, operated freely in the region.

These circumstances led to the war of 1854, when Cetinje’s forces attacked the kaza of Guci. Local leaders, supported and later led by Ali Beg of Guci, organized volunteer forces and set ambushes near the Previs Pass and Sutjeska. This battle inspired epic songs later immortalized by Gjergj Fishta.

In January 1854, Montenegrin regular forces faced Albanian volunteers, poorly armed but united and determined to defend their ancestral lands. The Albanians emerged victorious, inflicting heavy losses. Montenegrin memoirs acknowledge this defeat as unprecedented in the region.

Montenegrin scholar Veshoviq also noted that their forces did not understand Ali Beg’s tactics, and among the local population, the “white army” was remembered with fear.

French diplomat Ekar wrote that 105 heads were cut and blamed Russian agents for instigating the war. The Austrian vice-consul in Shkodra reported 136 killed in the Lim field and six drowned in the river. Russian officer Kovalevsky later wrote that the goal was to exploit the Lim Valley for “Old Serbia.” Russian journalist P. A. Rovinsky later documented proclamations calling for expansion into Albanian lands.

According to the memoirs of Gavro Vuku, at least one third of the nahiye was brought under Montenegrin control, and after defeat, eighty Orthodox heads were publicly displayed in Guci.

The atrocities of the Slavs of Velika in 1880

Although Cetinje signed a peace agreement regarding this border, it soon began supporting the village of Velika, which had adopted the Slavo-Orthodox faith and Montenegrin nationality. Velika, bordering the Albanian villages of Zhanicë, Pepaj, Nokshiq, Meteh, and the Rugova region, became a source of tension. This political maneuver quickly escalated when Velika received weapons from Cetinje and Russia, provoking clashes with neighboring Albanian villages and eventually triggering a broader conflict.

Assistance to the Velika villagers also came from the Vasojeviq and other Montenegrin regions. This strategy increased attacks and forced Velika to accept separation from the Gucia center, which in turn led to hostile confrontations with neighboring villages. The erosion of traditional customs escalated into severe human rights violations, including the burning of the Pepaj mosque, the execution of Mulla Osman Celë of Zhanicës, and the murder of Kune Drejaj, a young girl from Pepaj. During this period, four girls from Zhanicë were captured, mutilated, and abandoned, illustrating the extreme brutality of the conflict.

Serbo-Montenegrin atrocities in 1912

Plav and Guci

As reported by the newspaper Glas Crnogorac on 11 October 1912, “The Montenegrin army captured the two centers, Plavë and Guci…” This statement implies that the march occurred after the burning of the surrounding villages and the massacre of non-Slavic villagers, whose routes led to Plavë and Guci. Events during the autumn of 1912, particularly in the early months of 1913, were profoundly tragic. The Montenegrin army, led by commanders such as Veshoviq and Avro Çemi, perpetrated the most horrific acts of genocide in the region.

At Qafë – Rrafsh of Previsë, near these villages, 700 individuals were executed, including women and children. Even the lighter executions were accompanied by extreme brutality. One witness recalled, “They killed two boys before their mother’s eyes, placed the barrel of the gun to her face, and said: ‘This powder will shoot through your sons’ hearts and out the other side.’

Village of Zhanicë:

• Gjekaj: Tafil Isufi, Bajram Isufi, and Shaban Tafili
• Gjekaj (Tahiraj): Arif Tahiri with sons Zhuj, Mustafa, and Xhemë. Xhemë Arifi was killed in Mokna
• Shabaj: Hasan Kurti with sons Smajli, Halili, Uka, and Shaban with son Idriz; Demë Shabani with sons Muça and Zenel; Celë Shabani with son Deli and grandson Rrustem; Sadik Halili and Vesel Halili
• Gjelaj: Brothers Osman, Mehmet, and Mujë Daka; Idriz Bajram Daka; Asllan Veseli with son Cenë. Previously, Bajram, Osman, and Mujë Daka had been killed in an ambush at Gjollat e Dakë
• Ujkaj: Demë Hasani with brother Sadrinë
• Hasanlukaj: Rexhë Asllani with brother Haradin and son Hajrudin; Kadri Murseli with son Sadri
• Closely allied with the Zhanicë men was their nephew, son of Shake Uka, sister of Idriz Uka, leader of a band, the brave Plavjan Adem Kolashinci, whom the Vasojeviqs called “crni” (the black), killed in an ambush at Lybeniq near Peja.
• Another nephew of the Gjelaj family was the well-known Ujkan Ahmeti of Nokshiq, who had his own band with his daughter Rabie.
• Also a nephew of the Shabaj family was Azem Bajraktari of the Martinaj, leader of a rebel band, later a member of the Kosovo Committee in Shkodër.
• Çelë Neziri with sons Ibish and Idriz, with nephews Sylë, Ramë Ibish, and Mujë Idriz;
• Ali Feriz Feku with sons Sokol and Ujkan; Avdi Feriz with son Rexhë and Abaz Feku
• Lekaj: Brothers Zenel and Arif Hysi, and Tafil Zeneli
• Shalunaj: Elez Sokoli with sons Alia and Ruci, and nephews Bektesh Alia and Sokol Sylë with son Cafi
• Nuecaj: Nuec Spahija with son Sylë and nephews Haxhi, Bajram, and Niman; Osman Nueci; Selim Lushi; Mustafë Muji; Avdyl Sejdia with sons Feriz and Ramë; and Nuri with son Zekë

From the village of Pepaj:

Drejaj – Deli Smajli with his son Brahim and brother Sadri; Brahim Elezi; Asllan Ujku with his son Mushak and brother Hajdar; Halil Avdia with brother Cenë.

Bacaj – Zenel Avdyli with son Istref; Sali Jaha with sons Jahë, Mustafa, and Hasan; Feriz Uka; Kei Haradini; Azem Avdyli; Gim Galani with son Galan and brother Duq.

Lekaj – Adem Kurti with sons Bacan and Prel.

Gjonaj – Mark Gjoni with son Bac.

Nikaj – Gjon Pjetri with brother Çuni, etc.

From Nokshiqi:

Buçaj – Ujkan Ahmeti, Zymer and Imer Maliqi, Elez Kaserni, Mustafë Isufi, Beqir Groshi with son Reku, Dul Kameri, Mand Dishi with sons Sekun and Celë; Ibish Asllani with sons Azemin and Xhemajli, Ramë Bakia, Dan Zeqi, Smajl Ibra, etc.

Mehaj – Zek Sokoli, Hysen Salihi, Haxhë Mehi with son Mehi and brothers and nephews Ibish and Avdyli; Bush Salihi with brothers Mursel and Hysen; Hazir Zeneli with son Bajrush and brother Nezir and nephew Mehmet; Bush Nuri with brother Reku; Sali Salihi; sons of Sali Murseli: Galo Reku, Mursel, Basha, and Hyseni; Smajl Ahmeti and Ibish Ahmeti, sons of Meh Ibra: Rexha, Hyseni, and Qerimi.

Selimaj – Hasan Bardhi, Muj Bardhi, Sadik Selimi, sons of Sadik Selimi: Arifi, Jashari, Brahi, and Lushi, etc.

The worst period was 1912–1916, when the villages emptied of Albanians were settled by Montenegrin colonists, who became violent landowners up to the present day. They claimed, “The state gave us the land.” There were cases where Albanian landowners were killed, and the colonists became owners of the seized property—for example, the three sons of Dakë Gjel: Osman, Bajram, and Musli were killed on their own land to make way for the Tomoviqs. The colonists had support from Montenegrin neighbors and Cetina. This situation made it difficult for Albanian landowners to return during 1916–1918.

Nevertheless, in that dark calm, the families from these villages who had taken refuge in the areas of Plavë and Guci, in Malësia e Madhe, Malësia e Gjakovës, Kosovo, and elsewhere, began to return. The return to their lands was delayed, as it began shortly before the Austro-Hungarian forces left Guci. Restoration was also short-lived, because the pursuit of the previous occupier left vacancies for several months to be led and organized by the locals.

Changing the toponyms

In late autumn 1918, Montenegrin-Serbian forces attacked these areas, and by early winter 1919 they imposed even harsher control. Pop Gjorgji had converted a large portion of the population to the Orthodox faith. With forced conversion, not only were they baptized with new names—Tahir became Trifun, Veseli became Vejso, etc.—but their surnames were also changed, for example, Nuacaj became Novoviq.

Thus, each surname was modified with a Slavic suffix: Ujkaj → Ujkiq, Tahiraj → Tahiroviq, Drejaj → Dreiq, Mekuli → Mekuliq, etc. Settlement names were also changed, such as Pepaj → Pepiqe, Nokshiqi → Novshiqe, etc.

Regarding the tortures in these areas, the English traveler Edith Durham wrote:
“People’s names were made under torture. People were forced to stand in icy water until they begged for mercy. Every day, the town crier would call through the streets: ‘Today the government will execute ten people.’ No one knew the reason or who would be killed. They were forced to dig their own graves to be thrown in more easily. After shooting them, they would even dance over the bodies, without regard to whether they were alive or dead.”

Ongoing massacres in 1919

The situation escalated to the point where the Austro-Hungarian forces were violently pursued, and from February 20, 1919, the entire region began to be attacked. The first targets of the attackers were again Zhanicë, Pepaj, and Nokshiq, burning even the few huts that had been built for temporary shelter.

The first massacre was committed against the brave Halil Shabaj. Resistance by the volunteers defending these areas was impossible against a regular army, such as that of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The harshness of the operation had a basis, as declared by a general of the Yugoslav army on February 13, 1919:

“The Arnauts from the region of Plavë and Guci, 600 men, were defending against Montenegrin attacks in Polimle (Lower Limit-H. Gj.).” He said, “These cases surpassed those of 1912–1913.”

Also, the Montenegrin colonel reported to his supreme command that “3,000 people were forced to flee to Shkodër…,” without mentioning that in the center of Plavë alone, 450 were left killed. Not to mention the villages that had already been burned.

Atrocities during the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (SKS) (1920)

Life under the rule of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (SKS) brought new, different, and more sophisticated methods of torture, carried out in silence. The inhabitants experienced the worst. They were killed without trial, without choosing a particular time or method, even having their heads cut off in front of their children and parents.

To better understand the events surrounding conversion, we take some examples from Montenegrin writings. R. Veshoviq states: “…Most were crucified out of fear.” N. Duciq adds: “…The Montenegrin leaders used coercive means to convert them to the Orthodox faith.” The situation was carried out with knowledge and military planning.

As learned from a telegram sent to the Supreme Command of the Serbian Army (March 20, 1913): “The Montenegrins are applying terrible pressure on the population regarding baptism. They are forcing even the Catholics to convert to the Orthodox faith.

In many cases, where there was resistance to conversion, it ended with murder. Those baptized by the priest in the herds were immediately sent to the stream or river to wash their faces and other wet parts, rubbing them with sand until they bled.”

Fedo Qullafiqi notes: “The cannonballs fired at Plavë resembled a ‘show of force’ adventure… The tragedy was mostly experienced by the elderly, women, and children, which is a tragic tally of the drowned and wounded!” Besides the mentioned crimes, other inhumane acts were used, such as rapes, indescribable massacres, house burnings, and looting in various ways.

Most of the victims ended up in streams and rivers, and even today traces of blood are visible on mosque walls. This heightened their consciousness and national awareness, preparing them for the second wave of violence, while their patience and suffering increasingly turned into hatred toward the occupier.

The Serbian terrorist activities of the “Black Council”

From 1920–1940 in Plavë, the “Black Council” existed (composed of 14 members). In Guci there were 5 members, and in Murinë: Vaso Zeljov, Laban, Radisav Peshov, Vuksan Gojkoviq, Leko Popoviq, Punisha Drakuloviq, Ognjen Garçeviq, Vujo Bozhov Zogoviq, Dushan Popoviq, and Rajko Saviq. By their order or knowledge, over 200 people were executed in the region. From just three villages, the following were killed:

1. Vesel Bacaj (14), medrese student
2. Hasan Bacaj (in Bun te Dulit)
3. Galo Bacaj (in Llaze)
4. Mustafë Bacaj (in Pepaj)
5. Brahim Drejaj (in Pepaj)
6. Hajdar Drejaj (in Pepaj)
7. Tahir Drejaj (in Pepaj)
8. Gjon Leka (in Bun te Dulit)
9. Niman Drejaj (in Zhanicë)
10. Four Dakaj brothers (in Mis-Bjeshkë of Pepaj)
11. Azem Miei (in Nokshiq)
12. Sokol Shabani (in Nokshiq)
13. Dervish Asllani (in Zhanicë)
14. Tafil Leka (in Zhanicë)
15. Shek Buçaj (in Vraçevë)
16. Elez Buçaj
17. Mehmet Buçaj
18. Sinan Ibishi (in Velikë)
19. Vesel Gima (in Murinë)
20. Idriz Drejaj (in She te Pepajve)
21. Niman Bugaj (in Bun te Dulit)
22. Islam Buçaj (in Shalë)
23. Brahim Shalunaj (in Shalë), etc.

Regarding the fatal wounding of the student Vesel Bacaj, I learned that he was “wounded by Xhudoviq.” After being wounded, Vesel entered the house of Mileta Peri, and his first and last words were: “The Xhudoviqs killed me.” Mileta felt compelled to take revenge, confronting the assailants with resolute words: “This is how men are killed, not by pampering, and I leave it to the dead.” (April 1941)

The fall of the Yugoslav Kingdom broke the strength of the Serbo-Montenegrins, who believed they should always dominate, yet even they found it difficult to accept defeat as reality.

Nevertheless, in April 1941, the Albanians of this region were prepared to integrate into the current events, which came to be called the “Time of Albania.” For these highlanders, frequent joys could bring pain, while grief brought very little happiness. How could the inhabitants of the Plav and Gucia region not prepare themselves, not organize into voluntary civil-military formations, not respond to the call to defend the homeland, when the Chetniks aimed to exterminate this non-Slav population, as previously ordered by Alexander?

To illustrate this further, let us read the statements of Chetniks given on the Greben, Zeletina, and Vizitore peaks, from which they had a view of the Plav and Gucia Valley. From these observations, they divided the lands and territories of the indigenous population, dreaming of settling colonists after subjugating the Plav and Gucia region and removing the non-Slav inhabitants.

Family Memory and Loss
As I listed the family tree of the Nuacaj clan, Zekë Haxhi Syla’s face suddenly turned dark. He often said, “I remember my father, from whom I received no affection, because in many cases he was guarding the homeland and preparing for the call to arms.” Zekë’s mother, Suta, 93 years old, very old yet calm and with preserved memory, often intervened in the conversation, which I then used.

“My mother gave birth to me at a time when the Slavs were chasing us from the lands of the village of Martinaj. At that time, 700 people were killed at Qafë Previ, not to mention the valley of Plavë and Guci. They did not think of me, and after five years they named me Suta, only because I had escaped the ‘apocalypse.’ God granted me fate even with a good husband, though I experienced little joy. I experienced the burning of the house, the killing of three brothers-in-law and my husband. I did not enjoy the respect of my brothers-in-law nor my husband’s love; thus miserably I raised my children on the roads and in misery,” she said.

1940-1945

Victims from Nokshiq and Pepaj
Regarding Nokshiq, the following were killed: From Zhanicë: Xhemë Tahiraj in Mokna; Ymer Miuja Shabaj in Qafë te Çarshisë – Sekiricë; Azem Mehmet Gjelaj in Mokna; Dervish Asllan Gjelaj in Çakorr; Malush Bajram Nuacaj in Bjellopojë; Haxhi Sylë Nuacaj in Bjellopojë; Sokol Idrizi in Shtupës te Vogel in Rugova; Arnaut Ramë Nuacaj in Bjellopojë; Ibish Sadiku Shabaj in Pejë.

From Pepaj: Bejaze Salih Baca and Bjeshkë Lekaj were executed and burned in Pepaj; Hasan Sali Bacaj and Niman Duci were killed in Vermosh.

Imprisoned Individuals
Cenë Gjelaj (20), Halil Uli (Ujkani) (20), Selim Zhuji (20), Idriz Bajrami (20), Smajl Halili Shabaj (2), Idriz B. Gjelaj (15), Shaban Shabaj (10), Lekë P. Lekaj (10), and Ali Ferizi (20).