by Nikollë Loka

Abstract

The 1923 Greco-Turkish Lausanne Convention institutionalized a compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey, justified as a means of national homogenization and internal stability. While formally excluding Albanians living in Greece, the Convention’s reliance on religious criteria enabled systematic abuses that led to the forced displacement of Muslim Albanians, particularly the Cham population. This article examines the political motivations behind the exchange, the failures of international oversight, and the diplomatic resistance mounted by the Albanian government. It argues that the Convention constituted a legally unfounded and ethically unjust ethnic cleansing mechanism, implemented through bilateral agreement rather than international legal principles, with long-lasting demographic, social, and human consequences for Albanians expelled to Anatolia.

The Lausanne Treaty and the Forced Exchange of Populations

The Treaty of Lausanne was an agreement reached by the governments of Greece and Turkey concerning the exchange of all Greeks living in Anatolia and Thrace—excluding those resident in Istanbul before 1918—with all Turks living in Greece. In reality, this population exchange had already begun during the final days of the Turkish War of Independence.

The relocation and exchange of populations were conceived as a means of achieving demographic homogenization and strengthening national cohesion, aimed at reducing internal tensions. Economic interests also played a role: Greece confiscated the properties and wealth of Muslim Albanians in Çamëria, while Turkey sought potential financial compensation (Kaceli-Demirlika, 2013:125–126).

Under the supervision of the Great Powers and the League of Nations, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed on 30 January 1923. One of its provisions mandated the exchange of the Turkish population in Greece with the Greek population in Turkey. A League of Nations commission, along with several sub-commissions, was established to oversee the implementation of the exchange (Sheme, 2020).

Beginning on 1 May 1923, the agreement stipulated the mandatory exchange of “Turkish” citizens of the Orthodox faith residing in Turkey with Greek citizens of the Muslim faith residing in Greece. Although both parties formally agreed to exclude the Albanian population living in Greece from the exchange, neither Athens nor Ankara adhered to this commitment (Komina, 2016:72).

Religion as a Criterion and Its Abuses

The use of religious affiliation as the primary criterion for determining population exchange created broad opportunities for abuse. This was particularly detrimental to Albanians living in Çamëria and Macedonia (Bello, 2015:198).

This large-scale compulsory exchange—effectively a mutually agreed expulsion—was not based on language or ethnic identity, but on religion. It encompassed nearly all Orthodox Christians in Turkey, including Turkish-speaking Orthodox citizens, as well as most Muslims in Greece, including Greek-speaking Muslims.

According to Albanian scholars, this constituted “a sophisticated form of ethnic cleansing, entirely unsupported by international law of the time and based solely on a profoundly unjust Greco-Turkish bilateral agreement” (Bashkurti, 2012:277).

Albanian Diplomatic Resistance

All Albanian diplomatic missions acted actively to oppose the exchange. Albanian diplomats relied legally on the obligations of Greece and Turkey under the 14 November 1913 Turco-Greek Treaty and the Treaty of Sèvres of 20 August 1920, both of which guaranteed minority rights (Komina, 2016:73).

Prominent Albanian diplomats—including Mithat Frashëri (Minister Plenipotentiary in Greece), Benoit Blinishti (Consul General in Geneva), and Mehdi Frashëri (representative to the League of Nations)—worked to internationalize the issue and prevent the classification of Cham Albanians as “Turks” (Komina, 2016:72).

Athens responded by accusing Albania of interference in Greek internal affairs. The Mixed Commission supported the Greek position, requiring Albanians to prove their ethnic origin through documentation to avoid inclusion in the exchange (Komina, 2016:218). Simultaneously, violence against the indigenous Albanian population intensified, and Greek settlers from Asia Minor were installed in Albanian villages beginning in late 1923 (Komina, 2016:219)

Turkey’s Position and Strategic Demographic Policy

The Turkish government also refused to recognize the Cham population as Albanian Muslims under minority protection—a stance that aligned with Greek interests. Despite public assurances, Turkey actively encouraged Albanian Muslims to relocate to Anatolia.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk stated in Izmir:

“I believe that to increase the Turkish population… it is necessary to bring elements from Macedonia and Eastern Thrace”
(Kaceli-Demirlika, 2013:124).

Turkish officials continued to view religion as synonymous with nationality, a legacy of Ottoman governance, thereby facilitating the inclusion of Albanians in the exchange. Mehmet Necati Bey, Turkish Minister of Exchange, declared that Albanians from Ioannina settled near Istanbul were “not Albanians, but Turks” (Shaqiri, 2016:18).

Human Consequences

Muslim Albanians expelled from Greece were deported to Anatolia, where many could not survive the climate or living conditions. Elderly people, women, and children died in large numbers. Only a small minority returned to Albania.

Over 2,000 Cham families were settled in the Izmir region alone, making it the principal center of Cham Albanians in Turkey today. Others were dispersed across Istanbul, Bursa, Konya, Ankara, Samsun, Zonguldak, and elsewhere.

Entire villages were depopulated. For example:

• Gardhiq: from 400 houses (1913) to 80 (1925)
• Dragomi: from 160 to 18
• Parga: from 300 to 40
  (Sheme, 2020)

Conclusion

Although Albanians were not signatories to the Greco-Turkish Treaty, they were used as expendable elements in the population exchange. The Convention fulfilled Greek and Turkish strategic objectives while brutally violating the rights of the Albanian population in Greece.

CONVENTION ON THE GREEK-TURKISH POPULATION EXCHANGE, LAUSANNE, 1923

“The Government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the Hellenic Government have agreed on the following provisions:

Article 1
Starting from May 1, 1923, the compulsory exchange will take place of Turkish citizens of the Greek Orthodox religion residing in Turkish territories, and of Greek citizens of the Muslim religion residing in Greek territories. These individuals shall not be allowed to return to settle in Turkey or Greece without the authorization of the Turkish Government or, respectively, the Hellenic Government.

Article 2
The following shall not be included in the exchange provided in Article 1:
a) Greek inhabitants of Constantinople;
b) Muslim inhabitants of Western Thrace.

All Greeks who had settled in Constantinople before October 30, 1918, within the districts of the Constantinople prefecture as defined by the 1912 law, shall be considered inhabitants of Constantinople. All Muslims residing in the region east of the boundary line defined in 1913 by the Treaty of Bucharest shall be considered inhabitants of Western Thrace.

Article 3
Greeks and Muslims who have left, since October 18, 1912, the territories from which Greek and Turkish inhabitants are to be exchanged, respectively, shall be considered included in the exchange provided in Article 1. The term “emigrant” in this Convention includes all natural and legal persons required to emigrate or who have emigrated since October 18, 1912.

Article 4
All able-bodied men belonging to the Greek population whose families have already left Turkish territory and who are currently residing in Turkey shall form the first contingent of Greeks to be sent to Greece under this Convention.

Article 5
Except as provided in Articles 9 and 10 of this Convention, no property rights or financial claims of the Greeks of Turkey or Muslims of Greece shall be affected as a result of the exchange carried out under this Convention.

Article 6
No obstacle shall be placed, for any reason, to the departure of a person belonging to the populations to be exchanged. In the case of a final criminal conviction, or in the case of a non-final conviction or ongoing criminal proceedings against an emigrant, the latter shall be handed over by the authorities of the country pursuing the case to the authorities of the country to which he is going, to serve the sentence or stand trial there.

Article 7
Emigrants shall lose the nationality of the country they leave and shall acquire the nationality of the destination country as soon as they arrive in its territory. Emigrants who have already left either of the two countries and have not yet acquired the new nationality shall acquire it on the date of the signing of this Convention.

Article 8
Emigrants shall be free to take with them or transport their movable property of any kind without being subject to any exit, entry, or other tax. Likewise, members of any community (including the personnel of mosques, tekkes, madrasas, churches, monasteries, schools, hospitals, societies, associations, and legal persons or foundations of any kind) who must leave the territory of either contracting state under this Convention shall have the right to freely take or transport movable property belonging to their communities.

The authorities of both countries, on the recommendation of the Mixed Commission provided for in Article 11, shall ensure the greatest facilitation of transport. Emigrants unable to take all or part of their movable property may leave them behind. In such cases, the local authorities shall prepare, together with the emigrant, an inventory and valuation of the property left behind. Protocols containing the inventory and value of the property left shall be drawn up in four copies: one for the local authorities, one for the Mixed Commission under Article 11 for the purpose of liquidation under Article 9, one for the government of the country of emigration, and one for the emigrant himself.

Article 9
Immovable property, rural or urban, belonging to emigrants and communities mentioned in Article 8, as well as movable property left by them, shall be liquidated by the Mixed Commission provided for in Article 11 under the following provisions. Property located in regions subject to compulsory exchange and belonging to religious or charitable institutions of communities settled in regions not subject to exchange shall also be liquidated under the same conditions.

Article 10
The liquidation of movable and immovable property belonging to persons who have already left the territories of the High Contracting Parties and who, under Article 3 of this Convention, are considered part of the population exchange, shall be carried out in accordance with Article 9, regardless of any measures of any kind that, under laws and regulations enacted since October 18, 1912, in Greece and Turkey, imposed restrictions on property rights, such as confiscation, forced sale, or other measures.

If the aforementioned properties have been affected by such measures, their value shall be determined by the Commission under Article 11 as if these measures had not been applied. With regard to expropriated properties, the Mixed Commission shall carry out a reassessment of properties expropriated since October 18, 1921, belonging to persons included in the exchange and located in the exchange territories. The Commission shall set compensation to repair the established damage. The amount of such compensation shall be recorded in favor of the owners and as a debit of the government in whose territory the expropriated properties are located.

If persons mentioned in Articles 8 and 9 have not benefited from the income of the properties from which they were deprived, they shall be provided with the value of such income based on pre-war average yields, in the manner determined by the Mixed Commission. In the liquidation of waqf properties in Greece and of the rights derived therefrom, as well as analogous foundations belonging to Greeks in Turkey, the Mixed Commission shall rely on principles established in previous treaties, aiming to fully protect the rights and interests of these foundations and the individuals concerned.

Article 11
Within one month of the entry into force of this Convention, a Mixed Commission shall be established with headquarters in Turkey or Greece, composed of four members from each High Contracting Party and three members chosen by the Council of the League of Nations from nationals of powers that did not participate in the 1914–1918 war. The chairmanship of the Commission shall rotate among these three neutral members. The Mixed Commission shall have the right to create subcommissions where necessary, composed of one Turkish member, one Greek member, and a neutral chair appointed by the Commission itself. The Commission shall define the delegated powers.

Article 12
The Mixed Commission shall supervise and facilitate the emigration provided for by this Convention and carry out the liquidation of properties under Articles 9 and 10. It shall determine the rules of emigration and liquidation. In general, the Mixed Commission shall have all powers necessary to implement this Convention and to decide on all matters arising therefrom. Decisions shall be taken by majority vote. All disputes regarding properties, rights, and interests to be liquidated shall be finally settled by it.

Article 13
The Mixed Commission shall have full authority to assess movable and immovable property to be liquidated, hearing the interested parties or after they have been duly summoned. The basis of valuation shall be the value of the properties in gold currency.

Article 14
The Commission shall provide the interested owner with a statement certifying the amount owed for the properties from which he has been deprived, property which shall remain at the disposal of the government in whose territory they are located. The amounts determined shall constitute a debt of the government of the country where the liquidation takes place toward the government of the country of the emigrant. The emigrant shall, in principle, receive in the country to which he emigrates property of equal value and nature to that which he left. Every six months, an account shall be drawn up of the amounts owed by the respective governments to each other. In the final liquidation, if equal, accounts shall be offset. If, after offsetting, a government remains debtor, it shall pay the remaining sum. If extensions are required, the Commission may grant them, provided payment is made within three years at most, with interest determined by the Commission. If the amount is very large and requires longer terms, the debtor government shall immediately pay up to 20% of the amount and issue interest-bearing debt securities for the remainder, repayable within a maximum of 20 years. Guarantees shall be determined by the Commission or, in the absence of agreement, by the Council of the League of Nations.

Article 15
To facilitate emigration, the countries concerned shall provide advance funds to the Mixed Commission, under conditions specified by it.

Article 16
The Governments of Turkey and Greece shall agree with the Mixed Commission on all matters concerning notifications to persons who must depart and on the ports of departure. The Parties undertake not to exert any direct or indirect pressure on the populations to be exchanged and that emigrants shall not be subject to extraordinary taxes. Inhabitants of areas excluded from the exchange under Article 2 shall freely enjoy their rights and property.

Articles 17–19
The expenses of the Commission shall be covered by the governments concerned. The Parties shall adapt their legislation to implement the Convention. The Convention shall have the same force as if it were part of the Peace Treaty with Turkey and shall enter into force after ratification.

Signed in Lausanne on January 30, 1923. This Convention shall have the same force and value, for the High Contracting Parties mentioned herein, as if it were included in the Peace Treaty to be concluded with Turkey. It shall enter into force immediately after ratification of that treaty by both High Contracting Parties.

In witness whereof, the undersigned plenipotentiaries, whose full powers have been recognized as in proper and valid form, have signed this Convention.

Done at Lausanne on the thirtieth of January, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, in three original copies, of which one shall be delivered to the Hellenic Government, one to the Government of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, and the third copy shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the French Republic, which shall provide certified copies to the other Powers signatory to the Peace Treaty with Turkey.

(L.S.) E. K. VENIZELOS
(L.S.) D. CACLAMANOS
(L.S.) ISMET
(L.S.) Dr RIZA NOUR
(L.S.) HASSAN

Protocol
The undersigned Turkish plenipotentiaries, duly authorized, declare that, without waiting for the entry into force of the Convention concluded today with Greece regarding the exchange of Greek and Turkish populations, and with the exception of Article 1 of this Convention, the Turkish Government, from the moment of signing the Peace Treaty, shall release the able-bodied men mentioned in Article 4 of the aforementioned Convention and ensure their departure.

Done in three copies at Lausanne, on January 30, 1923.
ISMET
Dr RIZA NOUR
HASSA.”